The Fate Of Regulus

We have followed the growth of Rome from its seed in the cradle of

Romulus and Remus to its early maturity in the conquest of Italy. Its

triumph over the Latins, Samnites, and Etruscans had made it virtually

master of that peninsula. In the year 280 B.C. it was first called upon

to meet a great foreign soldier in the celebrated Pyrrhus of Epirus, who

had invaded Italy. How this great soldier scared the Romans with his

lephants and defeated them in the field, but was finally baffled and

left the country in disgust, we have told in "Historical Tales of

Greece." It was not many years after this that Rome herself went abroad

in search of new foes, and her long and bitter struggle with Carthage

began.



The great city of Carthage lay on the African side of the Mediterranean,

where it had won for itself a great empire, and had added to its

dominion by important conquests in Spain and Sicily. Settled many

centuries before by emigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, it

had, like its mother city, grown rich through commerce, and was now lord

of the Mediterranean and one of the great cities of the earth. With this

city Rome was now to begin a mighty struggle, which would last for many

years and end in the utter destruction of the great African city and

state.



Pyrrhus of Epirus, on leaving Sicily, had said, "What a grand arena this

would be for Rome and Carthage to contend upon!" And it was in the

island of Sicily that the struggle between these two mighty powers

began. In the year 264 B.C., nearly five centuries after the founding of

Rome, that city first sent its armies beyond the borders of Italy, and

the long contest between Rome and Carthage was inaugurated.



Some soldiers of fortune, who had invaded Sicily and found themselves in

trouble, called upon Rome for help. Carthage, which held much of the

island, was also appealed to, and both sent armies. The result was a

collision between these armies. In two years' time most of Sicily

belonged to Rome, and Carthage retained hardly a foothold upon that

island.



This rapid success of the Romans in foreign conquest encouraged them

greatly. But they were soon to find themselves at a disadvantage. Being

an inland power, they knew nothing of ocean warfare, and possessed none

but small ships. Carthage, on the contrary, had a large and powerful

fleet, and now began to use it with great effect. By its aid the

Carthaginians took from Rome many towns on the coast of Sicily. They

also landed on and ravaged the coasts of Italy. It was made evident to

the Roman senate that if they looked for success they must meet the

enemy on their own element, and dispute with Carthage the dominion of

the sea.



How was this to be done? The largest ships they knew of had only three



banks of oars. Carthage possessed war vessels with five banks of oars,

and built on a plan different from that of the smaller vessels. Rome had

no model for these ships, and was at a loss what to do. Fortunately a

Carthaginian quinquereme (a ship with five banks of oars) ran ashore on

the coast of Italy, and was captured and sent to Rome. This served as a

model for the shipwrights of that city, and so energetically did they

set to work that in two months after the first cutting of the timber

they had built and launched more than a hundred ships of this class.



And while the ships were building the crews selected for the

quinqueremes were practising. Most of them had never even seen an oar,

and they were now placed on benches ashore, ranged like those in the

ships, and carefully taught the movements of rowing, so that when the

ships were launched they were quite ready to drive them through the

waves. The Romans, who could fight best hand to hand, added a new and

important device, providing their ships with wooden bridges attached to

the masts, and ready to fall on an enemy's vessel whenever one came

near. A great spike at the end was driven into the deck of the enemy's

ship by the weight of the falling bridge, and held her while the Romans

charged across the bridge.



The new fleet was soon tried. It met a Carthaginian fleet on the north

coast of Sicily. The Romans proved poor sailors, but the bridges gave

them the victory. These could be wheeled round the mast and dropped in

any direction, and, however the Carthaginians approached, they found

themselves grappled and boarded by the Romans, whose formidable swords

soon did the rest. In the end Carthage lost fifty ships and ten thousand

men, and with them the dominion of the seas.



This success was a great event in the history of Rome. The victory was

celebrated by a great naval triumph, and a column was set up in the

Forum, which was adorned with the ornamental prows of ships.



Three years afterwards Rome resolved to carry the war into Africa, and

for this purpose built a great fleet of three hundred and thirty ships,

and manned by one hundred and forty thousand seamen, in addition to its

soldiers or fighting men. These were largely made up of prisoners from

Sardinia and Corsica, Carthaginian islands which had been attacked by

the Roman fleets. The two consuls in command were L. Manlius Vulso and

M. Atilius Regulus.



The great fleet of Rome met a still greater Carthaginian one at Ecnomus,

on the southern coast of Sicily, and here one of the greatest sea-fights

of history took place. In the end the Romans lost twenty-four ships,

while of those of the enemy thirty were sunk and sixty-four captured.

The remainder of the enemy's fleet fled in all haste to Carthage.



The Romans now prepared to take one of the greatest steps in their

history,--to cross the sea to the unknown African world. The soldiers

murmured loudly at this. They were to be taken to a new and strange

land, burnt by scorching heats and infested with noisome beasts and

monstrous serpents; and they were to be led into the very stronghold of

the enemy, where they would be at their mercy. Even one of their

tribunes supported the soldiers in this complaint. But Regulus was equal

to the occasion: he threatened the tribune with death, forced the

soldiers on board, and sailed for the African coast.



The event proved very different from what the soldiers had feared. The

army of Carthage was so miserably commanded that the Romans landed

without trouble and ravaged the country at their will; and instead of

the scorching heats and deadly animals they had feared, they found

themselves in a fertile and thickly-settled country, where grew rich

harvests of corn, and where were broad vineyards and fruitful orchards

of figs and olives. Towns were numerous, and villas of wealthy citizens

covered the hills.



On this rich and undefended country the hungry Roman army was let loose.

Villas were plundered and burnt, horses and cattle driven off in vast

numbers, and twenty thousand persons, many of them doubtless of wealth

and rank, were carried away to be sold as slaves. Meanwhile the army of

Carthage lurked on the hills, and was defeated wherever encountered.

Regulus, who had been left in sole command of the Roman army, overran

the country without opposition, and boasted that he had taken and

plundered more than three hundred walled towns or villages.



The Carthaginians, who were also attacked by roving desert tribes, who

proved even worse than the Romans, were in distress, and begged for

peace. But the terms offered by Regulus were so intolerable that it was

impossible to accept them. "Men who are good for anything should either

conquer or submit to their betters," said Regulus, haughtily. He had not

yet learned how unwise it is to drive a strong foe to desperation, and

was to pay dearly for his arrogance and pride.



The tide of war turned when Carthage obtained a general fit to command

an army. An officer who had been sent to Greece for soldiers of fortune

brought with him on his return a Spartan named Xanthippus, a man who had

been trained in the rigid Spartan discipline and had played his part

well in the wars of Greece. He openly and strongly condemned the conduct

of the generals of Carthage; and, on his words being reported to the

government, he was sent for, and so clearly pointed out the causes of

the late disasters that the direction of all the forces of Carthage was

placed in his hands.



And now a new spirit awakened in Carthage. Xanthippus reviewed the

troops, taught them how they should meet the Roman charge, and filled

them with such enthusiasm and hope that loud shouts broke from the

ranks, and they eagerly demanded to be led at once to battle.



The army numbered only twelve thousand foot, but had four thousand

cavalry and a hundred elephants, in which much confidence was placed.

The demand of the soldiers was complied with; they boldly marched out,

and now no longer to the hills, but to the lower ground, where the

devastation of the enemy was at once checked.



Regulus was forced to risk a battle, for his supply of food was in

peril. He marched out and encamped within a mile of the foe. The

Carthaginian generals, on seeing these hardy Roman legions, so long

victorious, were stricken with something like panic. But the soldiers

were eager to fight, and Xanthippus bade the wavering generals not to

lose so precious an opportunity. They yielded, and bade him to draw up

the army on his own plan.



In the battle that ensued the victory was due to the cavalry and

elephants. The cavalry drove that of Italy from the field, and attacked

the Roman rear. The elephants broke through the Roman lines in front,

furiously trampling the bravest underfoot. Those who penetrated the line

of the elephants were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian infantry. Of the

whole Roman army, two thousand of the left wing alone escaped; Regulus,

with five hundred others, fled, but was pursued and taken prisoner; the

remainder of the army was destroyed to a man. The defeat was total. Rome

retained but a single African port, which was soon given up. Xanthippus,

crowned with glory and richly rewarded, returned to Greece to enjoy the

fame he had won.



For five years Regulus remained a prisoner in Carthage, while the war

went on in Sicily. Here, in the year 250 B.C., the Romans gained an

important victory at Panormus (now Palermo), and Carthage, weary of the

struggle, sent to Rome to ask for terms of peace. With the ambassadors

came Regulus, who had promised to return to Carthage if the negotiations

should fail, and whom the Carthaginians naturally expected to use his

utmost influence in favor of peace.



They did not know their man. Regulus proved himself one of those

indomitable patriots of whom there are few examples in the ages. On

reaching the walls of Rome he refused at first to enter, saying that he

was no longer a citizen, and had lost his rights in that city. When the

ambassadors of Carthage had offered their proposal to the senate,

Regulus, who had remained silent, was ordered by the senate to give his

opinion of the proposed treaty. Thus commanded, he astonished all who

heard by strongly advising the senate not to make the treaty. He might

die for his words, he might perish in torture, but the good of his

country was dearer to him than his own life, and he would not counsel a

treaty that might prove of advantage to the enemy. He even spoke against

an exchange of prisoners, saying that he had not long to live, having,

he believed, been given a secret poison by his captors, and would not

make a fair exchange for a hale and hearty Carthaginian general.



Such an instance of self-abnegation has rarely been heard of in history.

It has made Regulus famous for all time. His advice was taken, the

treaty was refused; he, refusing to break his parole, or even to see his

family, returned to Carthage with the ambassadors, knowing that he was

going to his death. The rulers of that city, so it is said, furious

that the treaty had been rejected through his advice, resolved to

revenge themselves on him by horrible tortures. His eyelids were cut

off, and he was exposed to the full glare of the African sun. He was

then placed in a cask driven full of nails, and left there to die.



It is fortunate to be able to say that there is no historical warrant

for this story of torture, or for the companion story that the wife and

son of Regulus treated two Carthaginian prisoners in the same manner. We

have reason to believe that it is untrue, and that Regulus suffered no

worse tortures than those of shame, exile, and imprisonment.