The Wooden Walls Of Athens
The slaughter of the defenders of Thermopylae exposed Athens to the
onslaught of the vast Persian army, which would soon be on the soil of
Attica. A few days' march would bring the invaders to its capital city,
which they would overwhelm as a flight of locusts destroys a cultivated
field. The states of the Peloponnesus, with a selfish regard for their
own safety, had withdrawn all their soldiers within the peninsula, and
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began hastily to build a wall across the isthmus of Corinth with the
hope of keeping back the invading army. Athens was left to care for
itself. It was thus that Greece usually let itself be devoured
piecemeal.
There was but one thing for the Athenians to do, to obey the oracle and
fly from their native soil. In a few days the Persians would be in
Athens, and there was not an hour to lose. The old men, the women and
children, with such property as could be moved, were hastily taken on
shipboard and carried to Salamis, AEgina, Troezen, and other
neighboring islands. The men of fighting age took to their ships of war,
to fight on the sea for what they had lost on land. A few of the old and
the poverty-stricken remained, and took possession of the hill of the
Acropolis, whose wooden fence they fondly fancied might be the wooden
wall which the oracle had meant. Apart from these few the city was
deserted, and Athens had embarked upon the seas. Not only Athens, but
all Attica, was left desolate, and in the whole state Xerxes made only
five hundred prisoners of war.
Onward came the great Persian host, destroying all that could be
destroyed on Attic soil, and sending out detachments to ravage other
parts of Greece. The towns that submitted were spared. Those that
resisted, or whose inhabitants fled, were pillaged and burnt. A body of
troops was sent to plunder Delphi, the reputed great wealth of whose
temple promised a rich reward. The story of what happened there is a
curious one, and well worth relating.
The frightened Delphians prepared to fly, but first asked the oracle of
Apollo whether they should take with them the sacred treasures or bury
them in secret places. The oracle bade them not to touch these
treasures, saying that the god would protect his own. With this
admonition the people of Delphi fled, sixty only of their number
remaining to guard the holy shrine.
These faithful few were soon encouraged by a prodigy. The sacred arms,
kept in the temple's inmost cell, and which no mortal hand dared touch,
were seen lying before the temple door, as if Apollo was prepared
himself to use them. As the Persians advanced by a rugged path under the
steep cliffs of Mount Parnassus, and reached the temple of Athene
Pronaea, a dreadful peal of thunder rolled above their affrighted heads,
and two great crags, torn from the mountain's flank, came rushing down
with deafening sound, and buried many of them beneath their weight. At
the same time, from the temple of Athene, came the Greek shout of war.
In a panic the invaders turned and fled, hotly pursued by the few
Delphians, and, so the story goes, by two armed men of superhuman size,
whose destructive arms wrought dire havoc in the fleeing host. And thus,
as we are told, did the god preserve his temple and his wealth.
But no god guarded the road to Athens, and at length Xerxes and his army
reached that city,--four months after they had crossed the Hellespont.
It was an empty city they found. The few defenders of the Acropolis--a
craggy hill about one hundred and fifty feet high--made a vigorous
defence, for a time keeping the whole Persian army at bay. But some
Persians crept up a steep and unguarded part of the wall, entered the
citadel, and soon all its defenders were dead, and its temples and
buildings in flames.
While all this was going on, the Grecian fleet lay but a few miles away,
in the narrow strait between the isle of Salamis and the Attic coast,
occupying the little bay before the town of Salamis, from which narrow
channels at each end led into the Bay of Eleusis to the north and the
open sea to the south. In front rose the craggy heights of Mount
AEgaleos, over which, only five miles away, could be seen ascending the
lurid smoke of blazing Athens. It was a spectacle calculated to
infuriate the Athenians, though not one to inspire them with courage
and hope.
The fleet of Greece consisted of three hundred and sixty-six ships in
all, of which Athens supplied two hundred, while the remainder came in
small numbers from the various Grecian states. The Persian fleet,
despite its losses by storm, far outnumbered that of Greece, and came
sweeping down the Attic coast, confident of victory, while the great
army marched southward over Attic land.
And now two councils of war were held,--one by the Persian leaders, one
by the Greeks. The fleet of Xerxes, probably still a thousand ships
strong, lay in the Bay of Phalerum, a few miles from Athens; and hither
the king, having wrought his will on that proud and insolent city, came
to the coast to inspect his ships of war and take counsel as to what
should next be done.
Here, before his royal throne, were seated the kings of Tyre and Sidon,
and the rulers of the many other nations represented in his army. One by
one they were asked what should be done. "Fight," was the general reply;
"fight without delay." Only one voice gave different advice, that of
Queen Artemisia of Halicarnassus. She advised Xerxes to march to the
isthmus of Corinth, saying that then all the ships of the Peloponnesus
would fly to defend their own homes, and the fleet of Greece would thus
be dispersed. Xerxes heard her with calmness, but declined to take her
prudent advice. The voice of the others and his own confidence
prevailed, and orders were given for the fleet to make its attack the
next day.
The almost unanimous decision of this council, over which ruled the
will of an autocratic king, was very different from that which was
reached by the Greeks, in whose council all who spoke had equal
authority. The fleet had come to Salamis to aid the flight of the
Athenians. This done, it was necessary to decide where it was best to
meet the Persian fleet. Only the Athenians, under the leadership of
Themistocles, favored remaining where they were. The others perceived
that if they were defeated here, escape would be impossible. Most of
them wished to sail to the isthmus of Corinth, to aid the land army of
the Peloponnesians, while various other plans were urged.
While the chiefs thus debated news came that Athens and the Acropolis
were in flames. At once some of the captains left the council in alarm,
and began hastily to hoist sail for flight. Those that remained voted to
remove to the isthmus, but not to start till the morning of the next
day.
Themistocles, who had done his utmost to prevent this fatal decision,
which he knew would end in the dispersal of the fleet and the triumph of
Persia, returned to his own ship sad of heart. Many of the women and
children of Athens were on the island of Salamis, and if the fleet
sailed they, too, must be removed.
"What has the council decided?" asked his friend Mnesiphilus.
Themistocles gloomily told him.
"This will be ruinous!" burst out Mnesiphilus. "Soon there will be no
allied fleet, nor any cause or country to fight for. You must have the
council meet again; this vote must be set aside; if it be carried out
the liberty of Greece is at an end."
So strongly did he insist upon this that Themistocles was inspired to
make another effort. He went at once to the ship of Eurybiades, the
Spartan who had been chosen admiral of the fleet, and represented the
case so earnestly to him that Eurybiades was partly convinced, and
consented to call the council together again.
Here Themistocles was so excitedly eager that he sought to win the
chiefs over to his views even before Eurybiades had formally opened the
meeting and explained its object. For this he was chided by the
Corinthian Adeimantus, who said,--
"Themistocles, those who in the public festivals rise up before the
proper signal are scourged."
"True," said Themistocles; "but those who lag behind the signal win no
crowns."
When the debate was formally opened, Themistocles was doubly urgent in
his views, and continued his arguments until Adeimantus burst out in a
rage, bidding him, a man who had no city, to be silent.
This attack drew a bitter answer from the insulted Athenian. If he had
no city, he said, he had around him two hundred ships, with which he
could win a city and country better than Corinth. Then he turned to
Eurybiades, and said,--
"If you will stay and fight bravely here, all will be well. If you
refuse to stay, you will bring all Greece to ruin. If you will not stay,
we Athenians will migrate with our ships and families. Then, chiefs,
when you lose an ally like us, you will remember what I say, and regret
what you have done."
These words convinced Eurybiades. Without the Athenian ships the fleet
would indeed be powerless. He asked for no vote, but gave the word that
they should stay and fight, and bade the captains to make ready for
battle. Thus it was that at dawn of day the fleet, instead of being in
full flight, remained drawn up in battle array in the Bay of Salamis.
The Peloponnesian chiefs, however, were not content. They held a secret
council, and resolved to steal secretly away. This treacherous purpose
came to the ears of Themistocles, and to prevent it he took a desperate
course. He sent a secret message to Xerxes, telling him that the Greek
fleet was about to fly, and that if he wished to capture it he must at
once close up both ends of the strait, so that flight would be
impossible.
He cunningly represented himself as a secret friend of the Persian king,
who lost no time in taking the advice. When the next day's dawn was at
hand the discontented chiefs were about to fly, as they had secretly
resolved, when a startling message came to their ears. Aristides, a
noble Athenian who had been banished, but had now returned, came on the
fleet from Salamis and told them that only battle was left, that the
Persians had cooped them in like birds in a cage, and that there was
nothing to do but to fight or surrender.
This disturbing message was not at first believed. But it was quickly
confirmed. Persian ships appeared at both ends of the strait.
Themistocles had won. Escape was impossible. They must do battle like
heroes or live as Persian slaves. There was but one decision,--to fight.
The dawn of day found the Greeks actively preparing for the most famous
naval battle of ancient times.
The combat about to be fought had the largest audience of any naval
battle the world has ever known. For the vast army of Persia was drawn
up as spectators on the verge of the narrow strait which held the
warring fleets, and Xerxes himself sat on a lofty throne erected at a
point which closely overlooked the liquid plain. His presence, he felt
sure, would fill his seamen with valor, while by his side stood scribes
prepared to write down the names alike of the valorous and the backward
combatants. On the other hand, the people of Athens and Attica looked
with hope and fear on the scene from the island of Salamis. It was a
unique preparation for a battle at sea, such as was never known before
or since that day.
The fleet of Persia outnumbered that of Greece three to one. But the
Persian seamen had been busy all night long in carrying out the plan to
entrap the Greeks, and were weary with labor. The Greeks had risen fresh
and vigorous from their night's rest. And different spirits animated the
two hosts. The Persians were moved solely by the desire for glory; the
Greeks by the stern alternatives of victory, slavery, or death. These
differences in strength and motive went far to negative the difference
in numbers; and the Greeks, caught like lions in a snare, dashed into
the combat with the single feeling that they must now fight or die.
History tells us that the Greeks hesitated at first; but soon the ship
of Ameinias, an Athenian captain, dashed against a Phoenician trireme
with such fury that the two became closely entangled. While their crews
fought vigorously with spear and javelin, other ships from both sides
dashed to their aid, and soon numbers of the war triremes were fiercely
engaged.
The battle that followed was hot and furious, the ships becoming mingled
in so confused a mass that no eye could follow their evolutions. Soon
the waters of the Bay of Salamis ran red with blood. Broken oars, fallen
spars, shattered vessels, filled the strait. Hundreds were hurled into
the waters,--the Persians, few of whom could swim, to sink; the Greeks,
who were skilful swimmers, to seek the shore of Salamis or some friendly
deck.
From the start the advantage lay with the Greeks. The narrowness of the
strait rendered the great numbers of the Persians of no avail. The
superior discipline of the Greeks gave them a further advantage. The
want of concert in the Persian allies was another aid to the Greeks.
They were ready to run one another down in the wild desire to escape.
Soon the Persian fleet became a disorderly mass of flying ships, the
Greek fleet a well-ordered array of furious pursuers. In panic the
Persians fled; in exultation the Greeks pursued. One trireme of Naxos
captured five Persian ships. A brother of Xerxes was slain by an
Athenian spear. Great numbers of distinguished Persians and Medes shared
his fate. Before the day was old the battle on the Persian side had
become a frantic effort to escape, while some of the choicest troops of
Persia, who had been landed before the battle on the island of
Psyttaleia, were attacked by Aristides at the head of an Athenian troop,
and put to death to a man.
The confident hope of victory with which Xerxes saw the battle begin
changed to wrath and terror when he saw his ships in disorderly flight
and the Greeks in hot pursuit. The gallant behavior of Queen Artemisia
alone gave him satisfaction, and when he saw her in the flight run into
and sink an opposing vessel, he cried out, "My men have become women;
and my women, men." He was not aware that the ship she had sunk, with
all on board, was one of his own fleet.
The mad flight of his ships utterly distracted the mind of the
faint-hearted king. His army still vastly outnumbered that of Greece.
With all its losses, his fleet was still much the stronger. An ounce of
courage in his soul would have left Greece at his mercy. But that was
wanting, and in panic fear that the Greeks would destroy the bridge over
the Hellespont, he ordered his fleet to hasten there to guard it, and
put his army in rapid retreat for the safe Asiatic shores.
He had some reason to fear the loss of his bridge. Themistocles and the
Athenians had it in view to hasten to the Hellespont and break it down.
But Eurybiades, the Spartan leader, opposed this, saying that it was
dangerous to keep Xerxes in Greece. They had best give him every chance
to fly.
Themistocles, who saw the wisdom of this advice, not only accepted it,
but sent a message to Xerxes--as to a friend--advising him to make all
haste, and saying that he would do his best to hold back the Greeks, who
were eager to burn the bridge.
The frightened monarch was not slow in taking this advice. Leaving a
strong force in Greece, under the command of his general Mardonius, he
marched with the speed of fear for the bridge. But he had nearly
exhausted the country of food in his advance, and starvation and plague
attended his retreat, many of the men being obliged to eat leaves,
grass, and the bark of trees, and great numbers of them dying before the
Hellespont was reached.
Here he found the bridge gone. A storm had destroyed it. He was forced
to have his army taken across in ships. Not till Asia Minor was reached
did the starving troops obtain sufficient food,--and there gorged
themselves to such an extent that many of them died from repletion. In
the end Xerxes entered Sardis with a broken army and a sad heart, eight
months after he had left it with the proud expectation of conquering the
western world.