--Battle of Langensalza. --March into Bohemia. --Preliminary

Victories. --Halt in Gitchin. --Battle of Koeniggraetz. --Prussian

Advance to the Danube. --Peace of Nikolsburg. --Bismarck's Plan.

--Change in popular Sentiment. --Prussian Annexations. --Foundation

of the North-German Union. --The Luxemburg Affair.





[Sidenote: 1861. WILLIAM I., KING.]



The first important measure which the government of William I. adopted

was a thorough reorganization of the army. Since this could not be

effected without an increased expense for the present and a prospect of

still greater burdens in the future, the Legislative Assembly of Prussia

refused to grant the appropriation demanded. The plan was to increase

the time of service for the reserve forces, to diminish that of the

militia, and enforce a sufficient amount of military training upon the

whole male population, without regard to class or profession. At the

same time a Convention of the smaller States was held in Wuerzburg, for

the purpose of drawing up a new plan of union, in place of the old Diet,

the provisions of which had been violated so often that its existence

was becoming a mere farce.



Prussia proposed a closer military union under her own direction, and

this was accepted by Baden, Saxe-Weimar and Coburg-Gotha: the other

States were still swayed by the influence of Austria. The political

situation became more and more disturbed; William I. dismissed his

liberal ministry and appointed noted reactionists, who carried out his

plan for reorganizing the army in defiance of the Assembly. Finally, in

September, 1862, Baron Otto von Bismarck-Schoenhausen, who had been

Prussian ambassador in St. Petersburg and Paris, was placed at the head

of the Government. This remarkable man, who was born in 1813, in

Brandenburg, was already known as a thorough conservative, and

considered to be one of the most dangerous enemies of the liberal and

national party. But he had represented Prussia in the Diet at Frankfort

in 1851, he understood the policy of Austria and the general political

situation better than any other statesman in Germany, and his course,

from the first day of receiving power, was as daring as it was skilfully

planned.



[Sidenote: 1863.]



Even Metternich was not so heartily hated as Bismarck, when the latter

continued the policy already adopted, of disregarding the will of the

people, as expressed by the Prussian Assembly. Every new election for

this body only increased the strength of the opposition, and with it the

unpopularity of Prussia among the smaller States. The appropriations for

the army were steadfastly refused, yet the government took the money and

went on with the work of reorganization. Austria endeavored to profit by

the confusion which ensued: after having privately consulted the other

rulers, Francis Joseph summoned a Congress of German Princes to meet in

Frankfort, in August, 1863, in order to accept an "Act of Reform," which

substituted an Assembly of Delegates in place of the old Diet, but

retained the presidency of Austria. Prussia refused to attend, declaring

that the first step towards reform must be a Parliament elected by the

people, and the scheme failed so completely that in another month

nothing more was heard of it.



Soon afterwards, Frederick VII. of Denmark died, and his successor,

Christian IX., Prince of Gluecksburg, accepted a constitution which

detached Schleswig from Holstein and incorporated it with Denmark. This

was in violation of the treaty made in London in 1852, and gave Germany

a pretext for interference. On the 7th of December, 1863, the Diet

decided to take armed possession of the Duchies: Austria and Prussia

united in January, 1864, and sent a combined army of 43,000 men under

Prince Frederick Karl and Marshal Gablenz against Denmark. After several

slight engagements the Danes abandoned the "Dannewerk"--the fortified

line across the Peninsula,--and took up a strong position at Dueppel.

Here their entrenchments were stormed and carried by the Prussians, on

the 18th of April: the Austrians had also been victorious at Oeversee,

and the Danes were everywhere driven back. England, France and Russia

interfered, an armistice was declared, and an attempt made to settle the

question. The negotiations, which were carried on in London for that

purpose, failed; hostilities were resumed, and by the 1st of August,

Denmark was forced to sue for peace.



[Sidenote: 1866. AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA AT WAR.]



On the 30th of October, the war was ended by the relinquishment of the

Duchies to Prussia and Austria, not to Germany. The Prince of

Augustenburg, however, who belonged to the ducal family of Holstein,

claimed the territory as being his by right of descent, and took up his

residence at Kiel, bringing all the apparatus of a little State

Government, ready made, along with him. Prussia demanded the acceptance

of her military system, the occupancy of the forts, and the harbor of

Kiel for naval purposes. The Duke, encouraged by Austria, refused: a

diplomatic quarrel ensued, which lasted until the 1st of August, 1865,

when William I. met Francis Joseph at Gastein, a watering-place in the

Austrian Alps, and both agreed on a division, Prussia to govern in

Schleswig and Austria in Holstein.



Thus far, the course of the two powers in the matter had made them

equally unpopular throughout the rest of Germany. Austria had quite lost

her temporary advantage over Prussia, in this respect, and she now

endeavored to regain it by favoring the claims of the Duke of

Augustenburg in Holstein. An angry correspondence followed, and early in

1866 Austria began to prepare for war, not only at home, but by secretly

canvassing for alliances among the smaller States. Neither she, nor the

German people, understood how her policy was aiding the deep-laid plans

of Bismarck. The latter had been elevated to the rank of Count, he had

dared to assert that the German question could never be settled without

the use of "blood and steel" (which was generally interpreted as

signifying the most brutal despotism), and an attempt to assassinate him

had been made in the streets of Berlin. When, therefore, Austria

demanded of the Diet that the military force of the other States should

be called into the field against Prussia on account of the invasion of

Holstein by Prussian troops, only Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, the little

Saxon principalities and the three free cities of the North voted

against the measure!



[Sidenote: 1866.]



This vote, which was taken on the 14th of June, 1866, was the last act

of the German Diet. Prussia instantly took the ground that it was a

declaration of war, and set in motion all the agencies which had been

quietly preparing for three or four years. The German people were

stunned by the suddenness with which the crisis had been brought upon

them. The cause of the trouble was so slight, so needlessly provoked,

that the war seemed criminal: it was looked upon as the last desperate

resource of the absolutist, Bismarck, who, finding the Prussian Assembly

still five to one against him, had adopted this measure to recover by

force his lost position. Few believed that Prussia, with nineteen

millions of inhabitants, could be victorious over Austria and her

allies, representing fifty millions, unless after a long and terrible

struggle.



Prussia, however, had secured an ally which, although not fortunate in

the war, kept a large Austrian army employed. This was Italy, which

eagerly accepted the alliance in April, and began to prepare for the

struggle. On the other hand, there was every probability that France

would interfere in favor of Austria. In this emergency, the Prussian

Government seemed transformed: it stood like a man aroused and fully

alive, with every sense quickened and every muscle and sinew ready for

action. The 14th of June brought the declaration of war: on the 15th,

Saxony, Hannover, Hesse-Cassel and Nassau were called upon to remain

neutral, and allowed twelve hours to decide. As no answer came, a

Prussian army from Holstein took possession of Hannover on the 17th,

another from the Rhine entered Cassel on the 19th, and on the latter day

Leipzig and Dresden were occupied by a third. So complete had been the

preparations that a temporary railroad bridge was made, in advance, to

take the place of one between Berlin and Dresden, which it was evident

the Saxons would destroy.



The king of Hannover, with 18,000 men, marched southward to join the

Bavarians, but was so slow in his movements that he did not reach

Langensalza (fifteen miles north of Gotha) until the 23d of June.

Rejecting an offer from Prussia, a force of about 9,000 men was sent to

hold him in check. A fierce battle was fought on the 27th, in which the

Hannoverians were victorious, but, during their delay of a single day,

Prussia had pushed on new troops with such rapidity that they were

immediately afterwards compelled to surrender. The soldiers were sent

home, and the king, George V., betook himself to Vienna.



[Sidenote: 1866. BATTLE OF KOeNIGGRAeTZ.]



All Saxony being occupied, the march upon Austria followed. There were

three Prussian armies in the field: the first, under Prince Frederick

Karl, advanced in a south-eastern direction from Saxony, the second,

under the Crown-Prince, Frederick William, from Silesia, and the third,

under General Herwarth von Bittenfeld, followed the course of the Elbe.

The entire force was 260,000 men, with 790 pieces of artillery. The

Austrian army, now hastening towards the frontier, was about equal in

numbers, and commanded by General Benedek. Count Clam-Gallas, with

60,000 men, was sent forward to meet Frederick Karl, but was defeated in

four successive small engagements, from the 27th to the 29th of June,

and forced to fall back upon Benedek's main army, while Frederick Karl

and Herwarth, whose armies were united in the last of the four battles,

at Gitchin, remained there to await the arrival of the Crown-Prince.



The latter's task had been more difficult. On crossing the frontier, he

was faced by the greater part of Benedek's army, and his first battle,

on the 27th, at Trautenau, was a defeat. A second battle at the same

place, the next day, resulted in a brilliant victory, after which he

advanced, achieving further successes at Nachod and Skalitz, and on the

30th of June reached Koeniginhof, a short distance from Gitchin. King

William, Bismarck, Moltke and Roon arrived at the latter place on the 2d

of July, and it was decided to meet Benedek, who with Clam-Gallas was

awaiting battle near Koeniggraetz, without further delay. The movement was

hastened by indications that Benedek meant to commence the attack before

the army of the Crown-Prince could reach the field.



On the 3d of July the great battle of Koeniggraetz was fought. Both in its

character and its results, it was very much like that of Waterloo.

Benedek occupied a strong position on a range of low hills beyond the

little river Bistritz, with the village of Sadowa as his centre. The

army of Frederick Karl formed the Prussian centre, and that of Herwarth

the right wing: their position only differed from that of Wellington, at

Waterloo, in the circumstance that they must attack instead of resist,

and keep the whole Austrian army engaged until the Crown-Prince, like

Bluecher, should arrive from the left and strike Benedek on the right

flank. The battle began at eight in the morning, and raged with the

greatest fury for six hours: again and again the Prussians hurled

themselves on the Austrian centre, only to be repulsed with heavier

losses. Herwarth, on the right, gained a little advantage; but the

Austrian rifled cannon prevented a further advance. Violent rains and

marshy soil delayed the Crown-Prince, as in Bluecher's case at Waterloo:

the fate of the day was very doubtful until two o'clock in the

afternoon, when the smoke of cannon was seen in the distance, on the

Austrian right. The army of the Crown-Prince had arrived! Then all the

Prussian reserves were brought up; an advance was made along the whole

line: the Austrian right and left were broken, the centre gave way, and

in the midst of a thunderstorm the retreat became a headlong flight.

Towards evening, when the sun broke out, the Prussians saw Koeniggraetz

before them: the King and Crown-Prince met on the battle-field, and the

army struck up the same old choral which the troops of Frederick the

Great had sung on the field of Leuthen.



[Sidenote: 1866.]



The next day the news came that Austria had made over Venetia to France.

This seemed like a direct bid for alliance, and the need of rapid action

was greater than ever. Within two weeks the Prussians had reached the

Danube, and Vienna was an easy prey. In the meantime, the Bavarians and

other allies of Austria had been driven beyond the river Main, Frankfort

was in the hands of the Prussians, and a struggle, which could only have

ended in the defeat of the former, commenced at Wuerzburg. Then Austria

gave way: an armistice, embracing the preliminaries of peace, was

concluded at Nikolsburg on the 27th of July, and the SEVEN WEEKS' WAR

came to an end. The treaty of peace, which was signed at Prague on the

23d of August, placed Austria in the background and gave the leadership

of Germany to Prussia.



It was now seen that the possession of Schleswig-Holstein was not the

main object of the war. When Austria was compelled to recognize the

formation of a North-German Confederation, which excluded her and her

southern allies, but left the latter free to treat separately with the

new power, the extent of Bismarck's plans became evident. "Blood and

steel" had been used, but only to destroy the old constitution of

Germany, and render possible a firmer national Union, the guiding

influence of which was to be Prussian and Protestant, instead of

Austrian and Catholic.



[Sidenote: 1867. THE NORTH-GERMAN UNION.]



An overwhelming revulsion of feeling took place. The proud,

conservative, feudal party sank almost out of sight, in the enthusiastic

support which the nationals and liberals gave to William I. and

Bismarck. It is not likely that the latter had changed in character:

personally, his haughty aristocratic impulses were no doubt as strong as

ever; but, as a statesman, he had learned the great and permanent

strength of the opposition, and clearly saw what immense advantages

Prussia would acquire by a liberal policy. The German people, in their

indescribable relief from the anxieties of the past four years--in their

gratitude for victory and the dawn of a better future--soon came to

believe that he had always been on their side. Before the year 1866 came

to an end, the Prussian Assembly accepted all the past acts of the

Government which it had resisted, and complete harmony was

reestablished.



The annexation of Hannover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Schleswig-Holstein and

the City of Frankfort added nearly 5,000,000 more to the population of

Prussia. The Constitution of the "North-German Union," as the new

Confederation was called, was submitted to the other States in December,

and accepted by all on the 9th of February, 1867. Its parliament,

elected by the people, met in Berlin immediately afterwards to discuss

the articles of union, which were finally adopted on the 16th of April,

when the new Power commenced its existence. It included all the German

States except Bavaria, Wuertemberg and Baden, twenty-two in number, and

comprising a population of more than thirty millions, united under one

military, postal, diplomatic and financial system, like the States of

the American Union. The king of Prussia was President of the whole, and

Bismarck was elected Chancellor. About the same time Bavaria, Wuertemberg

and Baden entered into a secret offensive and defensive alliance with

Prussia, and the policy of their governments, thenceforth, was so

conciliatory towards the North-German Union, that the people almost

instantly forgot the hostility created by the war.



[Sidenote: 1867.]



In the spring of 1867, Napoleon III. took advantage of the circumstance

that Luxemburg was practically detached from Germany by the downfall of

the old Diet, and offered to buy it of Holland. The agreement was nearly

concluded, when Bismarck in the name of the North-German Union, made

such an energetic protest that the negotiations were suspended. A

conference of the European Powers in London, in May, adjudged Luxemburg

to Holland, satisfying neither France nor Germany; but Bismarck's

boldness and firmness gave immediate authority to the new Union. The

people, at last, felt that they had a living, acting Government, not a

mere conglomeration of empty forms, as hitherto.